Abstract
Objectives
This study aimed to compare the cognitive skills of children with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), specific learning disorder (SLD) and typically developing (TD) children.
Materials and Methods
The study group consisted of 115 ADHD, 106 SLD and 106 TD children between the ages of 6-10. The data were collected using the cognitive assessment system (CAS). In addition, a demographic information form was used to determine the characteristics of the participants. The data of the study were analyzed using SPSS 25 software (IBM Inc., Armonk, NY). Analysis of variance and Tukey post-hoc test were used in the analysis. The effect size was measured by eta squared.
Results
As a result of the study, in the planning subtest, ADHD groups scored significantly lower than the SLD and TD groups and SLD groups scored significantly lower than the TD group; in the simultaneous operations and attention subtest, ADHD and SLD groups scored lower than the ND group; in the consecutiveity subtest, the SLD group scored lower than the ADHD and TD groups and the ADHD group scored lower than the TD group; and in the total intelligence scores, the ADHD and SLD groups scored lower than the TD group.
Conclusion
It was observed that CAS was able to distinguish ADHD and SLD from each other with the planning and succession tests, and both groups from TD children with the total score in all subtests.
Keywords: Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder, specific learning disability, intelligence, cognitive assessment system
References
Bilkay Hİ, Sarı T, Gürhan N. Türkiye’de çocuk-ergen ruh sağlığına yönelik kısa bir inceleme. Çocuk ve Gelişim Dergisi. 2023;6:76-90.
Kayaalp L. Dikkat eksikliği hiperaktivite bozukluğu. İ.Ü. Cerrahpaşa Tıp Fakültesi Sürekli Tıp Eğitimi Etkinlikleri. 2008;147-152.
Ercan ES, Kandulu R, Uslu E, Ardic UA, Yazici KU, Basay BK, Aydın C, Rohde LA. Prevalence and diagnostic stability of ADHD and ODD in Turkish children: a 4-year longitudinal study. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health. 2013;7:30.
Devena SE, ve Watkins MW. Diagnostic utility of WISC-IV general abilities index and cognitive proficiency index difference scores among children with ADHD. J Appl Sch Psychol. 2012;28:133-154.
Sattler JM. Assessment of children: behavioral and clinical implications (4 th ed.). San Diego: Jerome M. Sattler Publisher, Inc. 2001.
Grigorenko EL, Compton DL, Fuchs LS, Wagner RK, Willcutt EG, Fletcher JM. Understanding, educating, and supporting children with specific learning disabilities: 50 years of science and practice. Am Psychol. 2020;75:37-51.
Girli A. Özel öğrenme güçlüğünü açıklayan yaklaşımlar. Eğiten Kitap, Ankara. 2014;2:33-48.
Özen, K. Özel öğrenme güçlüğü tanısı almış 7-9 yaş çocukların geliştirdikleri zihin kuramı yeteneklerinin sağlıklı gelişim gösteren grup ile karşılaştırılması. Hacettepe University Faculty of Health Sciences Journal. 2015;1 (Suppl2):558-576
Doğan H. Analyzing the effect of early intervention educational program applied to 5-6 year old children carrying special learning difficulties risk (Master’s thesis). Marmara University, İstanbul, 2012.
U.S. Department of Education. 38 th annual report to congress on the implementation of the individuals with disabilities education Act. Washington, D.C., Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, US Department of Education, 2016.
Melekoğlu MA. Özel öğrenme güçlüğüne giriş. İçinde: Melekoğlu MA, Çakıroğlu O, editörler. Özel öğrenme güçlüğü olan çocuklar. Ankara: Vize Yayıncılık. 2017;3:15-47.
Görgün B, Melekoğlu MA. Türkiye’de özel öğrenme güçlüğü alanında yapılan çalışmaların incelenmesi. Sakarya Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. 2019;9:83-106.
Anastopoulos AD, Spisto MA, Maher MC. The WISC-III freedom from distractibility factor: Its utility in identifying children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychol Assess. 1994;6:368-371.
Erdoğan Bakar E, Soysal Ş, Kiriş N, Şahin A, Karakaş S. Dikkat eksikliği hiperaktivite bozukluğunun değerlendirilmesinde Wechsler çocuklar için zeka ölçeği geliştirilmiş formunun yeri. Klinik Psikiyatri. 2005;8:5-17.
Evinç GŞ, Gençöz T. Dikkat eksikliği hiperaktivite bozukluğu tanısı alan çocukların WISC-R profillerinin, farklı bir psikiyatrik tanı alan ve herhangi bir tanısı olmayan çocuklarla karşılaştırılması. Türk Psikiyatri Dergisi. 2007;18:109-117.
Kiriş N, Karakaş S. Dikkat eksikliği hiperaktivite bozukluğunun zekâ testlerinden ve ilgili diğer nöropsikolojik araçlardan yordanabilirliği. Klinik Psikiyatri Dergisi. 2004;7:139-152
Mahone EM, Miller TL, Koth CW, Mostofsky SH, Goldberg MC, Denckla MB. Differences between WISC-R and WISC-III performance scale among children with ADHD. Psychol School. 2003;40:331-340.
Mayes SD, Calhoun SL, Crowell EW. WISC-III freedom from distractibility as a measure of attention in children with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Atten Disord. 1998;2:217-227.
Naglieri JA, Das JP. Cognitive assessment system interpretive handbook. Illinois: Riverside Publishing. 1997.
Naglieri JA, Goldstein S, Iseman JS, Schwebach A. Performance of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and anxiety/depression on the WISC-III and cognitive assessment system (CAS). J Psychoeduc Assess. 2003;21:32-42.
Naglieri JA, Salter CJ, Edwards GH. Assessment of children with attention and reading difficulties using the PASS theory and cognitive assessment system. J Psychoeduc Assess. 2004;22:93-105.
Öngider N, Baykara B, Pekcanlar Akay A. Bir çocuk psikiyatrisi polikliniğinde ayaktan izlenen olgulardan DEHB ve/veya ÖÖB tanısı konan çocukların WISC-R testi sonuçlarının karşılaştırılması. New/Yeni Symposium Journal. 2008;46:17-22.
Prifitera A, Dersh J. Base rates of WISC-III diagnostic subtest patterns among normal, learning-disabled, and ADHD samples. In: Bracken BA, McCallum RS, eds. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for children (3 rd ed). Clinical Psychology Publishing Co. 1993;43-55.
Snow JB, Sapp GL. WISC-III subtest patter ns of ADHD and normal samples. Psychol Rep. 2000;87:759-765.
Taddei S, Contena B, Caria M, Venturini E, Venditti F. Evaluation of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and specific learning disability on the WISC and cognitive assessment system (CAS). Procedia Soc Behav Sci. 2011;29:574-582.
Mackin RS, Horner MD. Relationship of the wender Utah rating scale to objective measures of attention. Compr Psychiatry. 2005;46:468-471.
Faraone SV, Biederman J, Lehman BK, Spencer T, Norman D, Seidman LJ, Kraus I, Perrin J, Chen JW, Tsuang MT. Intellectual performance and school failure in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and in their siblings. J Abnorm Psychol. 1993;102:616-623.
Naglieri JA, Goldstein S, Delauder BY, Schwebach A. Relationships between the WISC-III and the cognitive assessment system with Conners’ rating scales and continuous performance tests. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 2005;20:385-401.
Frazier TW, Demaree HA, Youngstrom EA. Meta-analysis of intellectual and neuropsychological test performance in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychology. 2004;18:543-555.
Morgan MA. Pediatric clinics of North America: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. WB Saunders Company.1998;70-90.
Lufi D, Cohen A. Using the WISC-R to identify attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychol Sch. 1985;22:58.
Bowers TG, Risser MG, Suchanec JF, Tinker DE, Ramer C, Domoto M. A developmental index using the Wechsler intelligence scale for children: implications for the diagnosis and nature of ADHD. J Learn Disabil. 1992;25:179-185.
Rucklidge JJ, Tannock R. Psychiatric, psychosocial, and cognitive functioning of female adolescents with ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2001;5:530-540.
Faraone SV, Doyle AE. The nature and heritability of attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2001;10:299-316.
Koyunoğlu S. Dikkat eksikliği ve hiperaktivite bozukluğu olan çocuk ve ergenlerde Weschler çocuklar için zeka ölçeği IV puanlarının incelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. 2021.
Soysal A, Koçkar A, Erdoğan E, Şenol S, Gücüyener K. Öğrenme güçlüğü olan bir grup hastanın WISC-R profillerinin incelenmesi. Klinik Psikiyatri. 2001;4:225-231.
Alm J, Kaufman AS. The Swedish WAIS-R factor structure and cognitive profiles for adults with dyslexia. J Learn Disabil. 2002;35:321-333.
Ottem E. Interpreting the WISC‐R subtest scores of reading impaired children a structural approach. Scand J Psychol. 1998;39:1-7.
Parke E. WISC-IV profiles in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and comorbid learning disabilities. UNLV theses, dissertations, professional papers, and capstones. University of Nevada, Las Vegas. 2014.
Naglieri JA, Das JP, Goldstein S. Planning, attention, simultaneous, successive. Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and issues. 2012;13:178-194
Ergin T. Bilişsel değerlendirme sistemi (cognitive assessment system-cas) beş yaş çocukları üzerinde geçerlilik güvenirlik ve norm çalışması. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi İstanbul Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. 2003.
Dondurucu I. The validity, reliability and norm studies of cognitive assessment system (CAS) ten years of children (Master’s thesis). Marmara University. 2006.
Akın G. Bilişsel değerlendirme sistemi (cognitive assessment system-cas) testinin onbir yaş çocukları üzerinde geçerlik, güvenirlik ve norm ön çalışmasının uygulanması (Yüksek lisans tezi). Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Ankara. 2006.
Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Academic Press. 2013.
Dehn MJ. Cognitive processing deficits. In: evidence-based interventions for students with learning and behavioral challenges, Morris RJ, Mather N, eds. (1 st ed). Routledge. 2008;274-303
Goldstein S, DeVries M. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in childhood. In: Goldstein S, Naglieri JA, DeVries M, eds. Learning and attention disorders in adolescence and adulthood: assessment and treatment (2 nd ed). New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 2011:59-86
Paolitto AW. Clinical validation of the cognitive assessment system with children with ADHD. ADHD Report. 1999;1-5.
Barkley RA. ADHD and the nature of self-control. Gilford Press. 1997.
Nigg JT. Is ADHD a disinhibitory disorder? Psychol Bull. 2001;127:571-598.
Pennington BF, Ozonoff S. Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1996;37:51-87.
Goldberg E. The executive brain: frontal lobes and the civilized mind. Oxford University Press. 2001.
Wasserman T, Wasserman LD. The sensitivity and specificity of neuropsychological tests in the diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Appl Neuropsychol Child. 2012;90-99.
Kranzler JH, Keith TZ. Independent confirmatory factor analysis of the cognitive assessment system (CAS): what does the CAS measure? School Psychology Review. 1999;117-144.
Cırık M, Sak U, Öpengin E. Dikkat eksikliği hiperaktivite bozukluğu olan çocukların anadolu-sak zeka ölçeği profillerinin incelenmesi. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi. 2020;663-685.
Çelik C. Use of Wechsler intelligence scales for children in the assessment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Turk J Child Adolesc Ment Health. 2014;29-78.
